# 4.1 Type Scoping

see 04/Working.hs

# 4.2 Type Applications

Type applications are applied in the order they appear in the signature. Another way to think about it is that all type signatures with variables have an implicit forall. So,

(,) :: a -> b -> (a, b)
(,) :: forall a b. a -> b -> (a, b)

The variables in the implicit forall are in order of their appearance in the rest of the type signature, but you can reorder the type variable with an explicit forall.

Another fun little feature I discovered is -XUnicodeSyntax which let’s you do

(,) :: ∀ a b. a -> b -> (a, b)

with the unicode for-all ∀ symbol.

# 4.3 Ambiguous Types

Okay, so we can think of type signatures as functions from type variables to concrete types:

m :: ∀ a. Maybe a
m @Bool :: Maybe Bool

This has the kind of Maybe :: Type -> Type and Bool :: Type. We could define:

data Bool' = Bool
data Maybe' a = Maybe a
f = \ a -> Maybe a

Which would have Maybe as a data constructor and Bool as a data constant, implying:

f Bool = Maybe Bool

The expressions m and f are substantially the same functions, but the former is at the type level while the latter is at the value level.

However, the default behavior of this kind of type-level “function” differs from those at the value level when it comes to handling constraints.

Suppose we have the function show:


class Show a where
show :: a -> String

Equivalently,

show :: Show a => a -> String

The type variable a gets solved when show' is called, and if a has no Show instance, then the compiler will error.

But if we have a similar function at the type level, typeRep

typeRep :: ∀ a. Typeable a => TypeRep

Then the compiler will complain right away that the type variable a in the constraint is not used in the right hand side of the signature

We can disable this, and defer the ambiguity check to the call site with -XAmbiguousTypes.

Furthermore, ambiguious types can arise even when the type variable in the constraint appears on the right-hand side of the signature:

type family AlwaysUnit a where
AlwaysUnit a = ()

g :: Show a => AlwaysUnit a -> String

is ambiguous because a` is phantom