# 4 Reduction

## 4.1 Definition of compatible relations

• (i): A compatible relation between two lambda expressions M and N implies the same relation:
• between the application of M and N to another expression Z:

M R N => (Z M) R (Z N)
• between the application of an expression Z to M and N

M R N => (M Z) R (N Z)
• between an abstraction on M and N

M R N => (\ x. M ) R (\ x. N)
• (ii): A congruence relation is a compatible equivalence relation. An equivalence relation is:
• reflexive: A R A
• symmetric: A R B => B R A
• transitive: A R B, B R C => A R C
• (iii): A reduction relation is like a congruence without the symmetry constraint. In other words, it has a sense of directionality because the left hand side and right hand side of the relation are not interchangeable. This makes sense here because reducing a lambda expression is not the same thing as “un-reducing” it. That is, if we want to reverse a computation we need some extra information to know what the initial state was.

## 4.2 Definition of ->_β, ->>_β and =_β

• (i): Single-step Beta Reduction ->_β or ->:
• (\x. M) N -> M[x:= N]
• Single-step reduction is a compatible relation
• (ii): Any-step Beta Reduction (or just “β-reduction”) ->>_β or ->>
• M ->> M (reflexive)
• M -> N => M ->> N (more general than ->)
• M ->> N, N ->> L => M ->> L (transitive)
• (iii): Equivalence =_β or =
• M ->> N => M = N (more general than ->>)
• M = N => N = M (symmetric)
• M = N, N = L => M = L (transitive)

## 4.3 Examples of ->, ->> and =

• (i): ω = \ x. xx, Ω = ωω -> Ω
• (ii): KIΩ ->> I

## 4.4 Example of =

KIΩ -> (\ y. I)Ω -> I
II -> I
KIΩ = I

So, equality, or β-convertibility, is like asking “do these two expressions perform the same computation, i.e. return the same expressions for the same inputs.

## 4.5 Proposition (equivalence of β-convertibility and λ-provable equality)

If you look at section 2.7, you’ll see that λ-provable equality is a binary relation that is:

• reflexive
• symmetric
• transitive
• compatible

Which is exactly the same structure as the β-convertibility relation. So if we have a proof that λ |- M = N, we can convert each step into a proof that M =_β N and vice-versa.

## 4.6 Definition of β-redex and β-normal form

• (i): A β-redex (reduction expression) is the application of a lambda abstraction to another expression:

(\ x. M) N -> M[x:=N]

The expression the redex reduces to is called the redex’s contractum.

• (ii): A λ-term is a β-normal-form if it does not have a redex inside it as a subterm. In other words, if there are no further reductions that can be done on it (proved below in 4.8)

• (iii): A term has a normal form if it is convertible to a normal form.

## 4.8 Lemma

The triple line equals sign is confusing here, and is not disambiguated from regular equals in the text. I think that triple line equals means term-substitution, so this lemma is saying that if M is β-reducible to N, then you can substitute any N for an M.

## 4.9 Church-Rosser Theorem

If M has two different reduction paths to distinct terms N1 and N2, then both of those terms will have reduction paths that converge on a third term N3. In other words, it doesn’t matter what order you reduce sub-terms of M, because you’ll always have a way to converge back to a common term. Even if you have divergent terms in M like Ω and you can make infinite reductions without converging, at every step you’ll always have a way to come back to the convergent path.

## 4.10 Corrolary

If M = N, then there is a common L to which they both reduce M ->> L, N ->> L

There are only three cases where M = N (from the definition of =_β in 4.2).

1. M ->> N => M = N
2. N = M => M = N
3. M = N', N' = N => M = N

An intuitive way to see that there are only three cases where M = N is by looking at the diagram in the text and visualizing the arrows as a kind of fluid flow, where M = N means that there is a waterway between M and N. If there is a waterway, then either

M is downstream from N, N ->> M M is upstream from N M ->> N M is both upstream and downstream from N, N ->> M && M ->> N M is neither upstream nor downstream from N

The first two cases can be thought of as the same, because = is symmetric.

Only the last case, where the waterway between M and N changes direction is tricky and requires induction.

## 4.11 Corrolary

λ-terms are β-reducible to their normal forms, and have at most one such normal form.

## 4.12 Some consequences

• (ii): Ω has no normal form because it continually regenerates its redex.
• (iii): Once we reach a normal form there are no more redex’s so reduction stop. We can get to this normal form by reducing the expression in any order that doesn’t loop forever.

## 4.13 Definition of Underlining

1. Λ_ is almost exactly the same as the previous set of lambda expressions Λ from 2.1. Compare the definition of Λ :
x ∈ V        => x ∈ Λ
M,N ∈ Λ      => (M N) ∈ Λ
M ∈ Λ, x ∈ V => (\x.M) ∈ Λ

with the definition of Λ_:

x ∈ V           => x ∈ Λ_
M,N ∈ Λ_        => (M N) ∈ Λ_
M ∈ Λ_, x ∈ V   => (\ x.M) ∈ Λ_
M,N ∈ Λ_, x ∈ V => ((\_ x.M) N) ∈ Λ_

Almost exactly the same, with the exception of the last line, which introduces an underlined lambda abstraction (\_).

1. The underlined reduction relations ->_ and and ->>_ are exactly like their non-underlined counterparts, but extended to deal with the \_ lambda abstraction. They remove the underlining in a \_ redex when they reduce it.
1. The function (\ M. |M|) : a ∈ Λ_ → a ∈ Λ turns an underlined expression back into a regular one by dropping the underlinings. So if M is an underlined expression, |M| is a non-underlined one.

## 4.14 Definition of φ : Λ_ → Λ

φ(x) = x
φ(M N) = φ(M)φ(N)
φ(\x.M) = \x.φ(M)
φ((\_x.M)N) = φ(M)[x:= φ(N)]

Okay, so what’s going on here is that φ is reducing all the underlined \_ redexes, but leaving the non-underlined ones \ intact.

## 4.15 Lemma

This diagram is saying that in an underlined redex, dropping the underlines and β-reducing is the same as β_-reducing and then dropping the underlines. Remember that the ->>_ arrow (any-step β_ reduction) treats underlined lambda abstractions the same as non-underlined ones.

## 4.16 Lemma

1. This part of the lemma is saying that
φ(sub_x(M,N)) = sub_x(φ(M),φ(N))
that is, doing the substitution before the φ-reduction is the same as doing the φ-reduction before the substitution.
1. This part is saying